Epigenetic signatures in sperm. Sperm chromatin is tightly packaged by binding to protamines and histones (< 15% of the genome). DNA methylation occurs at CG-rich, histone-bound DNA regions and repetitive sequences. Environmental factors may influence DNA methylation, histone modification, as well as the expression of small non-coding RNA, such as tsRNA, microRNA, and PIWI-interacting RNA. The figure was adapted from Donkin and Barrès [44] and created with Biorender.com. Credit: Clinical Epigenetics (2025). DOI: 10.1186/s13148-025-01815-1
A review in Clinical Epigenetics synthesizes growing evidence that paternal lifestyle and environmental exposures such as diet, obesity, smoking, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and stress alter sperm epigenetic marks (DNA methylation, histone retention, and small non-coding RNAs).
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